一 : LSAT考试全真试题五SECTION4
section iv
time—35 minutes
27 questions
directions: each passage in this section is followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. for some of the questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question however, you are to choose the best answer that is the response that most accurately and completely answers the questions. and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
many literary scholars believe that zora neale hurston s their eyes were watching god (1937) has been the primary influence on some of the most accomplished black women writing in the united
(5) states today. indeed, alice walker, the author of the prize-winning novel the color purple. has said of their eyes. "there is no book more important to me than this one." thus, it seems necessary to ask why their eyes, a work now viewed by a multitude
(10) of readers as remarkably successful in its complex depiction of a black woman s search for self and community. was ever relegated to the margins of the literary canon
the details of the novel s initial reception help
(15) answer this question. unlike the recently rediscovered and rerexamined work of harriet wilson. their eyes was not totally ignored by book reviewers upon its publication. in fact, it received a mixture of positive and negative reviews both from
(20) white book reviewers working for prominent periodicals and from important figures within black literary circles in the saturday review of literanre george stevens wrote that "the narration is exactly right, because most of it is dialogue and the
(25) dialogue gives us a constant sense of character in action the negative criticism was partially a result of hurston s ideological differences with other members of the black americans in literature. black
(30) writers of the 1940s believed that the black artist s primary responsibility was to create protest fiction that explored the negative effects of racism in the united states. for example, richard wright, the author of the much acclaimed native son (1940)
(35) wrote that their eyes had "no theme" and "no message" most crities and readers expectations of black literature rendered them unable to appreciate hurston s subtle delineation of the life of an ordinary black woman in a black community
(40) and the novel went quietly out of print
recent acclaim for their eyes results from the emergence of feminist literary criticism and the development of standards of evaluation specific to the work of black writers; these kinds of criticism
(45) changed readers expectations of art and enabled them to appreciate hurston s novel the emergence of feminist criticism was crucial because such criticism brought new attention to neglected works such as hurston s and alerted readers to hurston s
(50) exploration of women s issues in her fictionl. the afroncentric standards of evaluation were equally important to the rediscovery of their eyes, for such standards provided readers with the tools to recognize and appreciate the black folklore and
(55) oral storytelling traditions hurston incorporated within her work. in one of the most illuminating discussions of the novel to date. henry louis gates jr. states that "hurston s strategy seems to concern itself with the possibilities of representation of the
(60) speaking black voice in writing"
1. the passage suggests which one of the following about harriet wilson s novel?
(a) it was written at the same time as their eyes were watching god, but it did not receive as much critical attention.
(b) it greatly influenced black women writing after the 1940s.
(c) it was widely read when it was published but it has not received attention from literary crities until recently.
(d) it was not formally published, and the manuscript has only recently been discovered by literary crities.
(e) it did not receive critical attention when it was published, but it has recently become the subject of critical study.
2. the passage offers support for which one of the following statements about literary reviewers and their eyes were watching god?
(a) their eyes was widely acclaimed by reviewers upon its publication. even though it eventually went out of print.
(b) the eventual obscurity of their eyes was not the result of complete neglect by reviewers
(c) some early reviewers of their eyes interpreted the novel from a point of view that later became known as afrocentric
(d) their eyes was more typical of the protest fiction of the 1940s than reviewers realized
(e) most early reviewers of their eyes did not respond positively to the book.
3. which one of the following best states the main idea of the passage?
(a) hurston s their eyes were watching god had little in common with novels written by blank authors during the 1940s.
(b) feminist critics and authors such as alice walker were instrumental in establishing hurston s their eyes were watching god as an important part of the american literary canon.
(c) crities and readers were unable to appreciate fully hurston s their eyes were watching god until crties applied new standards of evaluation to the novel
(d) hurston s their eyes were watching god was an important influence on the protest fiction written by black writers in the mid-twentieth century.
(e) afrocentric strategies of analysis have brought attention to the use of oral storytelling traditions in novels written by black americans such as hurston s their eyes were watching god.
4. according to the passage which one of the following is true of black folklore traditions as used in literature written in the united states?
(a) they are an aspect of black american literature first recognized and written about by henry louis gates. jr
(b) they were not widely incorporated into novels written by black americans until after the 1940s
(c) they were first used by a novelist in zora neale hurston s their eyes were watching god
(d) they were not incorporated into novels published by black americans in the 1940s
(e) they are an aspect of black literature that some readers did not fully appreciate until relatively recently.
5. the passage suggests that native son differes from their eyes were watching god in which one of the following ways?
(a) it received fewer positive reviews at the time of its publication than did their eyes
(b) it is less typical of literature written by black americans during the 1940s than is then eyes
(c) it is less focused on an ordinary individual s seareh for self within a black community than is then eyes.
(d) it deniets more aspects of black american folklore than does their eyes.
(e) it has received more attention from feinist and afrocentric literary critics than their eyes
6. which one of the following provides the clearest example of the kind of fiction that many black writers of the 1940s, as their views are described in the passage, believed should be written?
(a) a novel that focuses on the interrelationships among four generations of black women
(b) a historical novel that re-creates actual events that occurred as black people suffered from oppression and racial injustice in a small town
(c) a novel, based on biographical stories orally relayed to the author as a child, that describes the development of traditions in a black family
(d) a novel that explores the psychological aspects of a relationship between a white man and a black man as they work together to organize protests against unjust working conditions
(e) a novel that examines the different ways in which three black children experience their first day of school in a rural community
7. the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about the relationship between art and literary criticism?
(a) the long-term reputation of a work of art is less dependent on the response of literary critics than on the response of readers and authors
(b) experimental works of fiction are usually poorly received and misunderstood by lterary crities when they are first published
(c) the response of literary critics to a work of art can be determined by certain ideological perspectives and assumptions about the purpose of art
(d) literary critics do not significantly affect the way most people interpret and appreciate literature.
(e) the ideological bases of a work of art are the first consideration of most literary critics.
8. the primary purpose of the passage is to
(a) correct a misconception
(b) explain a reassessment
(c) reconcile two points of view
(d) criticize a conventional approach
(e) announce a new discovery
legal cases can be termed "hard" cases if they raise issues that are highly controversial, issues about which people with legal training disagree. the ongoing debate over the completeness of the
(5) law usually concerns the extent to which such haard cases are legally determinate, or decidable according to existing law.
h l a hart s the concept of law is still the clearest and most persuasive statement of both the
(10) standard theory of hard cases and the standard theory of law on which it rests. for hart the law consists of legal rules formulated in general terms; these terms he calls "open textured" which means that they contain a "core" of settled meaning and a
(15) "penumbra" or "periphery" where their meaning is not determinate. for example, suppose an ordinance prohibits the use of vehicles in a park. "vehicle" has a core of meaning which includes cars and motoreycles but. hart claims, other
(20) vehicles, such as bicycles, fall within the peripheral meaning of "vehicle" so that the law does not establish whether they are prohibited. there will always be cases not covered by the core meaning of legal terms within existing laws. hart considers
(25) these cases to be legally indeterminate. since courts cannot decide such cases on legal grounds they must consider nonlegal (for example, moral and political) grounds, and thereby exercise judicial discretion to make, rather than apply law
(30) in ronald dworkin s view the law is richer than hart would grant: he denies that the law consists solely of explicit rules. the law also includes principles that do not depend for their legal status on any prior official recognition or enactment
(35) dworkin claims that many cases illustrate the existence of legal principles that are different from legal rules and that hart s model of rules cannot accommodate. for dworkin, legal rules apply in an all-or-nothing fashion whereas legal principles do
(40) not they provide the rationale for applying legal rules. thus, because dworkin thinks there is law in addition to legal rules, he thinks that legal indeterminacy and the need for judicial discretion do not follow from the existence of open texture in
(45) legal rules
it would be a mistakethough to dispute hart s theory of hard cases on this basis alone if hart s claim about the "open texture" of general terms is true, then we should expect to find legal
(50) indeterminacies even if the law consists of principles in addition to rules legal principles as well as legal rules contain general terms that have open texture. and it would be absurd to suppose that wherever the meaning of a legal rule is unclear
(55) there is a legal principle with a clear meaning most interesting and controversial cases will occur in the penumbra of both rules and principles.
9. which one of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(a) the law will never be complete because new situations will always arise which will require new laws to resolve them.
(b) the most difficult legal cases are those concerning controversial issues about which trained legal minds have differing opinions.
(c) the concept of legal principles does not diminish the usefulness of the concept of the open texture of general terms in deciding whether hard cases are legally determinate.
(d) the concept of legal principles is a deleterious addition to the theory of law since any flaws exhibited by legal rules could also be shared by legal principles.
(e) the inherent inconsistency of terms used in laws provides a continuing opportunity for judges to exercise their discretion to correct defect and gaps in the law.
10. according to the passage the term "legal principles" as used by dworkin refers to
(a) a comprehensive code of ethics that governs the behavior of professionals in the legal system
(b) explicit analyses of the terms used in legal rules indicating what meanings the terms do and do not cover
(c) legal doctrines that underlie and guide the use of accepted legal rules
(d) legal rules that have not yet passed through the entire legislative procedure necessary for them to become law
(e) the body of legal decisions regarding cases that required judicial discretion for their resolution
11. which one of the following expresses a view that the author of the passage would most proably hold concerning legal principles and legal rules?
(a) legal rules are applied more often than legal principles when a case involves issues about which legal professionals disagree.
(b) both legal rules and legal principles are officially recognized as valid parts of the law.
(c) hart s "model of rules" has been superseded by a "model of principles" that sheds light on legal determinacy.
(d) legal principles are just as likely as legal rules to have terms that have both core and peripheral meanings
(e) legal principles eliminate the need for judicial discretion in resolving the problems generated by the open texture of legal rules.
12. in the passage, the author uses the example of the word "vehicle" to
(a) illustrate a legal rule that necessarily has exceptions
(b) show how legal principles are applied in the construction of legal rules
(c) represent the core of settled meaning of a legal term
(d) serve as an example of a legal term with both a core and a periphery of meaning
(e) provide a counterexample to hart s concept of the open texture of legal terms
13. it can be inferred that the author of the passage regards hart s theory of hard cases and the theory of standard law as
(a) exhaustive
(b) worthy of respect
(c) interesting but impractical
(d) plausible but unwieldy
(e) hopelessly outmoded
14. which one of the following is true of the term "legally determinate" (line 6) as it is used in the passage?
(a) it represents the idea that every crime should have a fixed penalty rather than a range of penalties within which a judge can make an arbitrary choice
(b) it refers to a legal case that can be definitively resolved in favor of one side or the other according to the law in effect at the time
(c) it describes a legal rule that requires judges to limit their actions to applying written law when deciding cases over which people with legal training disagree
(d) it refers to any legal case that involves terms with imprecise meanings and thus relies for its resolution only on the determination of judges.
(e) it refers to procedures for determining the legal outcome of complex issues in difficult cases.
15. in the passage, the author is primarily concerned with
(a) outlining the problems that might be faced by a legislature attempting to create a complete body of law that would prevent judges from making rather than applying the law
(b) justifying the idea that "hard" cases will always exist in the practice of law, no matter what laws are written or how they are applied
(c) presenting evidence to support dworkin s idea that legal rules apply in an all-or-nothing fashion whereas legal principles apply in more sophisticated ways
(d) critiquing the concept of the open texture of legal terms as a conceptual flaw in hart s otherwise well-regarded book.
(e) demonstrating that dworkin s concept of legal principles does not form the basis for a successful attack on hart s theory of legally indeterminate cases
one way governments can decrease air pollution is to impose a tax on industrial carbon dixide emissions. but why should governments consider a carbon tax when they could control emissions by
(5) establishing energy efficiency and conservation standards, by legislating against coal use or by increasing inverstment in nuclear? the great virtue of such a tax is that it would provide incentives for industry to achieve emission
(10) reductions. because oil emits more carbon dioxide per unit of energy generated than does natural gas, and coal more than oil,a carbon tax would vary with the type of fuel.such a tax would induce industry to substitute less- polluting fuels for those carrying a
(15) higher tax and also to reduce the total use of energy
however it is not clear how high such a tax should be or what its economic and environmental implications would be. at first glance, it is not
(20) difficult to estimate roughly the size of the tax needed to effect a given level of emission reduction. one writer estimates for example that a tax of 41 percent on the price of coal 33 percent on oil and 25 percent on gas would reduce the united
(25) kingdom s emissions by 20 percent (using 1988 as the base year) by the year 2005 the target recommended by the 1988 toronto conference. it should be noted however that these numbers ignore the effect of the tax on economic growth, and
(30) hence on emissions, and assume that past responses to a price rise will be replicated in the future these numbers are also based on the assumption that all countries will behave cooperatively in imposing a carbon tax.
(35) there are very strong reasons to believe that cooperation would be difficult to win. if most countries cooperated. then any country that chose not to cooperate would be advantaged it would have no abatement costs, and the effect on the
(40) environment of its defection would be relatively small. because of this "free rider" effect cooperation on a scale needed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions might prove elusive
should countries act unilaterally to durb
(45) emissions? if a country were to act unilaterally the benefits would be spread across the globe, whereas the costs would fall solely on the country taking the action. the action would reduce emissions globally and the effect of this would be to reduce the benefit
(50) other countries would receive if they reduced emissions. as a consequence other countries would have less incentive to reduce emissions and would probably emit more carbon dioxide than they would have if the unilateral action had not been taken
(55) the entire effect of the emission reduction may not be lost, but it would surely be dimminished by this free-riding behavior
16. according to the passage, the size of the carbon tax levied on a given fuel would vary with the
(a) amount of that fuel used by a particular industry
(b) amount of pollution caused by the fuel being taxed
(c) size of the industries using the fuel being taxed
(d) effect that the tax would have on a country s economy
(e) number of usuers of a particular fuel at a particular time
17. the author mentions the estimates of "one writer" (line 22) primarily in order to
(a) indicate in a general way the size that a carbon tax must be for it to be effective.
(b) provide the most accurate information available about the most practical size for a carbon tax
(c) suggest that the target recommended by the 1988 toronto conference is an unrealistic one
(d) undermine the argument that a carbon tax would provide incentives for user s to achieve emissions reductions
(e) show how the size of an effective carbon tax can be calculated
18. which one of the following circumstances would most seriously undermine the conclusion "such a tax would induce induce industry to substitute less-polluting fuels for those carrying a higher tax" (lines 13-15)
(a) the fuel taxed a the highest rate costs considerably less to buy than fuels taxed at lower rates
(b) the goal set by the toronto conference cannot be reached unless each fuel it taxed at a much higher rate
(c) the tax on coal represents a much greater cost increase than does the tax on oil or gas
(d) it is discovered that gas produces even less carbon dioxide per unit of energy generated than was previously thought.
(e) it is discovered that coal produces even more carbon dioxide per unit of energy generated than are previously thought.
19. the passage is primarily intended to answer which one of the following questions?
(a) how high a tax should a country s government impose on carbon dioxide emissions?
(b) what issues should a country s government consider before deciding whether to impose a tax on carbon dioxide emissions?
(c) what assumptions underlie a country s decision to impose a tax on carbon dioxide emissions?
(d) how can the effects of industrial pollution on the earth s atmosphere be decreased?
(e) what can be done to increase the effectiveness of any tax that a country imposes on carbon dioxide emissions?
20. in response to the question. "should countries act unilaterally to curb emissions?" (line 44-45) the author would be most likely to contend that a country should
(a) not act unilaterally because although that country would receive some benefits from such action other countries would most likely be harmed by it
(b) not act unilaterally because unilateral action would have no benefits for other countries
(c) not act unilaterally because the cost to that country would not be justified by the limited effect that such action would have on industrial pollution worldwide
(d) act unilaterally because that country s economy would benefit from the resulting reduction in industrial emissions worldwide
(e) act unilaterally because other countries might well be inspired to follow that country s example
21. which one of the following is most parallel to the "free rider" effect mentioned in line 41?
(a) an industry agrees to base itself in a city where there has been little industrial development only if the city will rezone the specific property the industry desires.
(b) because fares for public transportation are rising a commuter decides to bicycle to work rather than to use public transportation i a city where auto emissions are a problem
(c) an apartment dweller begins to recycle newspapeers even though no one else in the building does so and recycling is not required by law
(d) in an area where groundwater has become polluted a homeowner continues to buy bottled water rather than contribute to a neighborhood fund to combat pollution
(e) in an area where overgrazing is a severe problem a shepherd allows his sheep to continue grazing common field even though his neighbors have agreed to buy feed for their animals until regrowth occurs
some meteorologists have insisted that the severity of the drought in sub-saharan west africa and its long duration (nearly 40 years to date) must be a sign of a long term alteration in climate
(5) among the theories proposed to explain this change one hypothesis that has gained widespread attention attributes the drought to a cooling of the northern hemisphere. this hypothesis is based on the fact that between 1945 and the early 1970s the
(10) average annual air temperatures over the landmasses of the northern hemisphere decreased by about half a degree fahrenheit (approximately one quarter of a degree celsius—a samll but significant amount). several meterologists have
(15) suggested that this cooling was caused by an increase in atmospheric dust emanating from volcanic eruptions and from urban and industrial pollution the dust reflected incoming sunlight. causing the ground to receive less solar radiation
(20) and to transfer less heart to the atmosphere. the cooling seemed to be more pronounced in the middle and high latitudes than in the tropies an observation that is consistent with the fact that the sun s rays enter the atmosphere at a greater angle
(25) farther north and so have to pass through more dust-laden atmosphere on the way to the earth.
since winds are set in motion by differences in air pressure caused by unequal heating of the atmosphere supporters of the cooling hypothesis
(30) have argued that a growing temperature differential between the unusually cool middle and high latitudes and the warm tropical latitudes is causing a southward expansion of the circumpolar vortex—the high-altitude westerly winds that circle
(35) the northern hemisphere at middle latitudes according to this hypothesis as the circumpolar vortex expands, it forces south other components of large- scale atmospheric circulation and in effect displaces the northward-moving monsoon that
(40) ordinarily bring sub-saharan rain proponents have further argued that this change in atmospheric circulation might be long-term since cooling in the northern hemisphere could be perpetuated by increases in ice and snow coverage there which
(45) would lead to reflection of more sunlight away from the earth to further cooling and indirectly to further drought in sub-saharan west africa
despite these are ptedtctions and even though the current african drought has lasted longer than
(50) any other in this century the notion that the drough is caused by cooling of the northern hemisphere is. fact not well supported contrary to the predictions of the cooling hypothesis, during one period of rapid northern hemisphere cooling
(55) in the early 1950s, the sub-sahara was unusually rain moreover in the early 1980s, when the drought was particularly severe northern hemisphere lands actually warmed slightly. and furhter doubt has been cast on the hypothesis by
(60) recent analyses suggesting that when surface temperatures of water as well as land are taken into account the northern hemisphere may not have cooled at all
22. which one of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(a) there is strong evidence to support the theory that an increase in atmospheric dust has contributed to the severity of the drought in sub- saharan west africa
(b) the suggestion that northern hemisphere cooling is contributing to a decline of rainfall in sub-saharan west africa is open to question
(c) the expansion of the circumpolar vortex has caused a dramatic shift in the atmospheric circulation patterns above sub-saharan west africa
(d) the drought in sub-saharan west africa represents a long-term permanent alteration in global climake patterns
(e) meteorologists cannot determine when the droutht in sub-saharan west africa is likely to end
23. the author s attitude toward the cooling hypothesis is best described as one of
(a) vehement opposition
(b) cautious skepticism
(c) growing ambivalence
(d) guarded enthusiasm
(e) strong support
24. according to the passage proponents of the cooling hypothesis suggested that the circumpolar vortex is likely to expand when which one of the following occurs?
(a) the average annual atmoshperic temperature of the tropics is significantly higher than normal for an extended period of time.
(b) the average annual snowfall in the northern hemisphere is lower than normal for an extended period of time.
(c) the average annual surface temperature of northern hemisphere waters is higher than the average annual surface temperature of northern hemisphere landmasses
(d) there is a significant increase in the difference between the average annual atmospheric temperature of the tropies and that of the more northern latitudes
(e) there is a significant increase in the difference between the average annual atmospheric temperatures of the middle and the high latitudes in the northern hemisphere.
25. which one of the following can be inferred from the passage about the average annual temperature of the air over northern hemisphere landmasses before 1945?
(a) it was higher than it was between 1945 and the early 1970s.
(b) it was lower than it was during the early 1980s.
(c) it was the same as it was between 1945 and the early 1970s.
(d) it was the same as the annual average surface temperature of northern hemisphere landmasses and bodies of water between 1945 and the early 1970s.
(e) it was higher than the annual average surface temperature of northern hemisphere landmasses and bodies of water between 1945 and the early 1970s.
26. which one of the following best deseribes the organization of the passage?
(a) opposing points of view are presented evidence supporting each point of view is discussed and then one point of view is developed into a formal hypothesis
(b) a theory is discussed and different points of view about the theory are discussed supported and then reconciled
(c) a hypothesis is proposed contradictory evidence is discussed and then the hypothesis is amended
(d) a theory explaining a phenomenon is proposed supporting evidence is considered and then the theory is disputed
(e) a point of view is presented a theory supporting the view is proposed contradictory evidence is presented and then a different theory is proposed.
27. a proponent of the cooling hypothesis would most likely argue that the return of the monsoon rains to sub-saharan west africa would indicate that which one of the following has also occurred?
(a) the amount of ice and snow coverage over the landmasses of the northern hemisphere has increased
(b) the average annual temperature of the atmosphere over the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere has decreased
(c) the average annual temperature of the atmosphere over the tropics in the northern hemisphere has increased
(d) other components of large-scale atmospheric circulation besides the circumpolar vortex have expanded and moved southward
(e) the atmospheric circulation pattern of the high-altitude westerly winds has resumed its normal pattern
二 : 新增LSAT真题详解：Section1Question11
coolaw三 : LSAT考试全真试题一SECTION3
section ⅲ
time-35 minutes
26 questions
directions: each passage in this section if followed by a group of questions to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage. for some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question, however, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet.
the fairness of the judicial process depends on the objective presentation of facts to an impartial jury made up of one's peers. present the facts, and you have a fair trial
(5)however, fact-finding, especially for interpersonal disagreements, is not so straightforward and is often contaminated by variables that reach beyond the legal domain.
(10)a trial is an attempt to transport jurors to the time and place of the disputed event, to recreate the disputed event, or at least to explain that event with maximum accuracy. a trial falls short of this goal, however.
(15)because it presents selected witnesses who recite selected portions of their respective memories concerning selected observations of the disputed event. these multiple selections are referred to as the abstraction process.
(20)limitations in both perception and memory are responsible for the fact that the remembered event contains only a fraction of the detail present during the actual event, and the delay between observation and
(25)recitation causes witnesses' memories to lose even more of the original perceptions. during the course of a trial, a witness's recitation of the now-abstracted events may reflect selected disclosure based on his or her
(30)attitudes and motivations surrounding that testimony. furthermore, the incidents reported are dependent on the lines of inquiry established by the attorneys involved. accordingly, the recited data are a
(35)fraction of the remembered data, which are a fraction of the observed data, which are a fraction of the total data for the event. after the event that led to the trial has been abstracted by participants in the trial, jurors
(40)are expected to resolve factual issues. some of the jurors' conclusions are based on facts that were directly recited; others are found inferentially. here another abstraction process takes place. discussions during deliberations.
(45)add to the collective pool of recalled evidentiary perceptions; nonetheless, the jurors' abstraction processes further reduce the number of characteristics traceable to the number of characteristics traceable to the original event.
(50)complication can arise from false abstractions at each stage. studies have shown that witnesses recall having perceived incidents that are known to be absent from a given event. conversely, jurors can remember
(55)hearing evidence that is unaccounted for in court transcripts.explanations for these phenomena range from blas through prior conditioning or observer expectation to taully reportage of the event based on the event based on the
(60)constraints of alnguage. aberrant abstractions in perception or deliberate, but reliability is nevertheiess diluted. finally, deliberate untruthfulness has always
(65)been recognized as a risk of testimoniat evidence. such intentionally false inaccuracies produced by the abstraction process.
1. in this passage, the author's main purpose is to
(a) discuss a process that jeopardizes the famness of jury trials
(b) analyze a methodology that safeguards the individual's right to fair trial
(c) explain why jurors should view eyewiness testimony with skepticism
(d) defend the trial-by-jury process, despite its limitations
(e) point out the unavoidable abuses that have crept into the judicral process
2.the author considers all of the following obstacies to a fair trial exceft
(a) selective perceptions
(b) faulty communications
(c) partial disclosures
(d) intentional falsifications
(e) too few abstractions
3.the author would most likely agree that the abstraction process occurs in the judicial process primarily because
(a) some jurors' conclusions are based on facts rather than on inferences
(b) remembered events depend upon an undividual's emotions
(c) human beings are the sources and users of data presented in trials
(d) it is difficult to distinguish between deliberate faisenood and unintentional selected disclosure
(e) witnesses often dispute on eanother's recoliections of events
4.it can be inferred that the author believes the ability of juries to resolve factual issues is
(a) lmited by any individual juror's tendency to draw inferences from the facts presented during the trial
(b) overwhelmed by the collective pool of recalled evidentiary perceptions
(c) unaffected by the process of trying to reenact the event leading to the trial
(d) dependent upon the jury's ability to understand the influence of the abstraction process on testimony
(e) subject to the same limitations of perception and memory that affect witnesses
5.with which one of the following statements would the author most likely agree?
(a) if deliberate untruthfulness were all the courts had to contend with, jury trials would be fairer than they are today.
(b) lack of moral standards is more of an impediment to a fair trial than human frailty.
(c) the bulk of the inaccuracies produced by the abstraction process are innocently presented and rarely have any serious consequences.
(d) if the inaccuracies resulting from the abstraction process persist, the present trial-by-jury system is likely to become a thing of the past.
(e) once intentional falsification of evidence is eliminated from trials, ensuring an accurate presentation of facts will easily follow.
6.the author's attitude toward the abstraction process that occurs when witnesses testify in a trial can best be described as
(a) confident that witnesses can be conditioned to overcome many limitations of memory
(b) concerned that it may undermine witnesses ability to accurately describe the original event in dispute
(c) critical of witnesses' motivations when delivering testimony
(d) indifferent toward the effect the abstraction process has on testimony
(e) suspicious of witnesses' efforts to describe remembered events truthfully
7.given the information in the passage, the actual event that is disputed in a jury trial is most like
(a) a group of job applicants that is narrowed down to a few finalists
(b) a subject that is photographed from varjed and increasingly distant vantage points
(c) scraps of fabric that are sewn together to make an intricately designed quilt
(d) a puzzle that is unsystematically assembled through trial and error
(e) a lie that is compounded by additional lies in order to be maintained
a medical article once pointed with great alarm to an increase in cancer among milk drinkers. cancer, it seems, was becoming increasingly frequent in new england,
(5) minnesota, wisconsin, and switzerland, where a lot of milk is produced and consumed, while remaining rare in ceylon, where milk is scarce. for further evidence it was pointed out that cancer was less frequent in some
(10)states of the southern united states where less milk was consumed. also, it was pointed out, milk-drinking english women get some kinds of cancer eighteen times as frequently as japanese women who seldom drink milk
(15)a little digging might uncover quite a number of ways to account for these figures but one factor is enough by itself to show them up. cancer is predominantly a disease that strikes in middle life or after. switzerland
(20)and the states of the united states mentioned first are alike in having populations with relatively long spans of life. english women at the time the study was made were living an average of twelve years longer than
(25)japanese women.professor helen m. walker has worked out an amusing illustration of the folly in assuming there must be cause and effect whenever two things vary together. in investigating the
(30)relationship between age and some physical characteristics of women, begin by measuring the angle of the feet in walking. you will find that the angle tends to be greater among older women. you might first consider whether
(35)this indicates that women grow older because they toe out, and you can see immediately that this is ridiculous. so it appears that age increases the angle between the feet, and most women must come to toe out more
(40)as they grow older.
any such conclusion is probably false and certainly unwarranted. you could only reach it legitimately by studying the same women-or possibly equivalent groups-over a period of
(45)time. that would eliminate the factor responsible here, which is that the older women grew up at a time when a young lady was taught to toe out in walking, while the members of the younger group were
(50)learning posture in a day when that was discouraged.
when you find somebody-usually an interested party-making a fuss about a correlation, look first of all to see if it is not (55) one of this type, produced by the stream of events, the trend of the times. in our time it is easy to show a positive correlation between any pair of things like these: number of students in college, number of inmates
(60)in mental institutions, consumption of cigarettes, incidence of heart disease, use of x-ray machines, production of false teeth, salaries of california school teachers, profits of nevada gambling halls. to call some one
(65)of these the cause of some other is manifestly silly. but it is done every day.
8.the author's conclusion about the relationship between age and the ways women walk indicates he believes that
(a) toeing out is associated with aging
(b) toeing out is fashionable with the younger generation
(c) toeing out was fashionable for an older generation
(d) studying equivalent groups proves that toeing out increases with age
(e) studying the same women over a period of time proves that toeing out increases with age.
9.the author describes the posited relationship between toeing out and age (lines 29-40) in order to
(a) illustrate a folly
(b) show how social attitudes toward posture change
(c) explain the effects of aging
(d) illustrate a medical problem
(e) offer a method to determine a woman's age from her footprints.
10. given the author's statements in the passage, his advice for evaluating statistics that show a high positive correlation between two conditions could include all the following statements except
(a) look for an explanation in the stream of events
(b) consider some trend of the times as the possible cause of both conditions
(c) account for the correlations in some way other than causality
(d) determine which of the two conditions is the cause and which is the effect
(e) decide whether the conclusions have been readched legitimately and the appropriate groupings have been made.
11. assume that there is a high statistical correiation between college attendanceand individual earnings. given this, the author would most probably agree with which one of the following statements about the cause-effect relationship between college attendance and income?
(a) someone's potential earnings may be affected by other variables, like wealth or intelligence, that are also associated with college attendance.
(b) someone who attends graduate school will be rich.
(c) someone who attends graduate school will earn more money than someone who does not.
(d) someone who attends college will earn more money than someone who does not attend college.
(e) some who attends college will earn more money only because she does attend college.
12. according to the author professor walker beheves that
(a) women who toe out age more rapidly than women who do not
(b) most woment toe out as they grow older because age increases the angle between the feet.
(c) older women tend to walk with a greater angle between the feet
(d) toeing out is the reason why women grow old
(e) a causal relationship must exist whenever two things vary together
13. the author would reject all the following statements about cause-effect relationships as explanations for the statistics that show an increase in cancer rates except that the
(a) ceylongese drink more milk than the english
(b) swiss produce and consume large quantities of dairy products
(c) women of new england drink more milk than the women who live in some states of the southern united states
(d) people of wisconsin have relatively high life expectancies
(e) people who live in some states of the southern united states have relatively high life expectancies
14. how would the author be most likely to explain the correlation between the " salaries of california school teachers [and the] profits of nevada gambling halls" (lines 63-64)?
(a) there is a positive correlation that is probably due to california teachers' working in las vegas on weekends to increase both their salaries and increase both their salaries and nevada's gambling profits.
(b) there is a positive correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, put no direct causal relationship exists.
(c) there is a negative correlation that is probably linked to general economic trends, but no direct causal relationship exists.
(d) there is a negative correlation because the element that controls las vegas gambling probably has agents in the calitornia school system.
(e) the author would deny the existence of any correlation whatsoever.
in most developed countries, men have higher salaries, on average, than women. much of the salary differential results from the tendency of women to be in lower-paying
(5) occupations. the question of whether this occupational employment pattern can be attributed to sex discrimination is a complex one. in fact, wage differentials among occupations are the norm rather than the
(10)exception. successful athletes commonly earn more than nobel prize-winning academics; gifted artists often cannot earn enough to survive, while mediocre investment bankers prosper. given such differences ,the question
(15)naturally arises: talent and ability being equal why does anyone-man or woman-enter a low-paying occupation? one obvious answer is personal choice. an individual may prefer, for example, to teach math at a modest
(20)salary rather than to become a more highly paid electrical engineer.some people argue that personal choice also explains sex-related wage differentials, according to this explanation, many women.
(25)because they place a high priority on parenting and performing household services, choose certain careers in which they are free to enter and leave the work force with minimum penalty. they may choose to
(30)acquire skills, such as typing and salesclerking, that do not depreciate rapidly with temporary absences from the work force. they may avoid occupational specialties that require extensive training periods, long and
(35)unpredictable hours, and willingness to relocate, all of which make speclalzation in domestic activities problematic. by choosing to in vest less in developong their career potential and to expend less effort outside
(40)the home, women must, according to this explanation, pay a price in the from of lower salaries. but women cannot be considered the victims of discrimination because they prefer the lower-paving occupartions to
(45)hugher-paying ones.
an alternative explanation for sex-related wage differentials is that women do not voluntarlly choose lower-paying occupations but are forced into them by employers and
(50)social prejudices. according to proponents of this view, employers who discriminate may refuse to hire qualified women for relatively high-paying occupations. more generally, subtle society-wide prejudices may induce
(55)women to avoid certain occupations in favor of others that are considered more suitable. indeed, the "choice" of women to specialize in parenting and performing household services may itself result from these subtle
(60)prejudices. whether the discrimination is by employers in a particular occupation or by society as a whole is irrelevant; the effect will be the same. further, if such discrimination does occur, women exchuded from certain
(65)occupations will flood others, and this increase in supply will have a depressing effect on wages in occupations dominated by women
15. which one of the following is the best little for the passage?
(a) wage differentials between men and women
(b) women in low-paying occupations: do they have a choice?
(c) sex discrimination in the workplace
(d) the role of social prejudice in women's careers.
(e) home vs. office: how does the modern woman choose?
16. in stating that "successful athletes commonly earn more than nobel prize-winning academics" (lines 10-11), the author's primary purpose is to
(a) demonstrate that education has little to do with making money
(b) suggest that people with talent and ability should not enter low-paying occupations
(c) show that highly paid occupations generally require long hours and extensive training
(d) imply that a person can be successful and still not make much money
(e) give an example of how certain occupations are better paid than others. tegardiess of inherent: worth or talent required
17. which one of the following cases is least likely to involve sex descrimination, as it is described in the passage?
(a) an employer hires a man rather than an equally qualified woman.
(b) a woman chooses to enter a high-paying occupation that uses her talent and ability.
(c) a woman chooses an occupation that is already dominated by women.
(d) a woman chooses a low-paying job that allows her to devote more time to her family.
(e) a woman chooses to avoid the pressure of being in an occupation not considered "suitable" for women
18. proponents of the "alternative explanation" (line 46) argue that
(a) employers have difficulty persuading quallried women to enter relatively high-paying occupations
(b) women choose undemanding jobs because they wish to keep their career options open
(c) women will flood domestic occupations
(d) salanes in female-dominated occupations will decrease as more women are forced into those occupations by their exclusion from others
(e) women's choice of occupation is irrelevant since they have always made less money than men and are likely to continue to do so
19. which one of the following statements is the best completion of the last paragraph of the passage?
(a) wage differentials will become more exaggerated and economic parity between men and women less and less possible.
(b) finally, women will be automatically placed in the same salary range as unskilled laborers.
(c) the question is, how long will women allow themselves to be excluded from male-dominated occupations?
(d) in the last analysis, women may need to ask themselves if they can really afford to allow sex discrimination to continue.
(e) unless society changes its views, women may never escape the confines of the few occupations designated "for women only"
20. the author's attitude toward sex discrmination as an explanation for wage differentials can best be characterized as an explanation for wage differentials can best be characterized as differentials can best be characterized as
(a) critical of society's acceptance of discrimination
(b) skeptical that discrimination is a factor
(c) convinced that the problem will get worse
(d) neutral with respect to its validity
(e) frustrated by the intractability of the problem
the starting point for any analysis of insurance classification is an obvious but fundamental fact insurance is only one of a number of ways of satisfying the demand for
(5) protection against risk with few exceptions, insurance need not be purchased; people can forgo it if insurance is too expensive indeed, as the price of coverage rises, the amount purchased and the number of people.
(10)purchasing will decline. instead of buying insurance, people will self-insure by accumulating saving to serve as a cushion in the event of loss, self-protect by spending more on loss protection, or simply use the
(15)money not spent on insurance to purchase other goods and services an insurer must compete against these alternatives., even in the absence of competition from other insurers.one method of competing for protection
(20)dollars is to classify potential purchasers into groups according to their probability of loss and the potential magnitude of losses if they occur. different risk classes may then be charged different premiums, depending on
(25)this expected loss. were it not for the need to compete for protection dollars, an insurer could simply charge each individual an insurer could simply charge each individual a premium based on the average expected loss of all its insureds (plus a margin for profit and
(30)expenses), without incurring classification costs. in constructing risk classes, the insurer's goal is to calculate the expected loss of each insured, and to place insureds, with similar expected losses into the same.
(35)class, in order to charge each the same rate. an insurer can capture protection dollars by classifying because, through classification, it can offer low-risk individuals lower prices. classification, however, involves two costs.
(40)first, the process of classification is costly. insurers must gather data and perform statistical operations on it; marketing may also be more costly when prices are not uniform. second, classification necessarily
(45)rauses premiums for poor risks, who purchase less coverage as a result. in the aggregate, classification is thus worthwhile to an insurer only when the gains produced from extra sales and fewer pry-outs outweigh
(50)classificaton costs plus the costs of lost sales. even in the absence of competition from other insurers, an insurer who engages in at least some classification is likely to capture more protection dollars than it loses.
(55) when there is not only competition for available protection dollars, but competition among insurers for premium dollars, the value of risk classification to insurers becomes even clearer. the more refined (and accurate) an
(60)insurer's risk classifications, the more capable it is of "skimming" good risks away from insurers whose classifications are less refined. if other insurers do not respond, either by refining their own classifications or
(65)by raising prices and catering mainly to high risks, their "book" of risks will contain a higher mixture of poor risks who are still being charged premiums calculated for average risks these insurers will attract
(70)additional poor risks, and this resulting adverse selection will further disadvantage their competitive positions.
21. which one of the following best identifies the main topic of the passage?
(a) reduction of competition in the insurance business
(b) classification of potential insurance purchasers
(c) risk avoidance in insurance sales
(d) insurance protection and premiums
(e) methods of insurance classifying
22. the passage mentions all of the following as possible or certain costs of classifying except the cost of
(a) collecting facts
(b) conducting statistical analyses
(c) selling insurance at different prices
(d) a decrease in purchases by poor risks
(e) larger, albeit fewer, claims
23. which one of the following is closest to the author's expressed position on competition in the insurance business?
(a) it has a significant influence on most aspects of the insurance industry.
(b) it is a relevant factor, but it has little practical consequence.
(c) it is a basic but not very apparent element of the insurance business.
(d) it provides a strong incentive for insurers to classify potential customers.
(e) it is influential in insurance marketing practices.
24. the passage suggests that if all insurers classified risk, who among the following would be adversely affected?
(a) all insurance purchasers
(b) insurance purchasers who would be classified as poor risks
(c) individuals who self-insured or self protected
(d) insurers who had a high proportion of good risks in their "book" of risks
(e) insurers with the most refined risk classifications
25. given the discussion in the first paragraph, what is the distinction, if any, between "insurance" and "self-protection"?
(a) there is very little or no distinction between the two terms.
(b) insurance is a kind of self-protection.
(c) self-protection is a kind of insurance.
(d) insurance and self-protection are two of several alternative means to a specific end
(e) insurance and self-protection are the only two alternative means to a specific end.
26. which one of the following is most closely analogous to the process of classification in insurance, as it is described in the passage?
(a) devising a profile of successful employees and hiring on the basis of the profile
(b) investigating the fuel efficiency of a make of automobile and deciding whether or not to buy on that basis
(c) assessing an investor's willingness to take risks before suggesting a specific investment
(d) making price comparisons on potential major purchases and then seeking discounts from competing dealers
(e) comparing prices for numerous minor nims and the selecting one store for future purchases.
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