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克隆技术造福人类阅读理解-“割礼”的人类学、伦理学解读

发布时间:2018-02-07 所属栏目:小安阅读法

一 : “割礼”的人类学、伦理学解读

“割礼”的人类学、伦理学解读

文章作者:冷烛

在古代阿拉伯部落以及古希腊文明中以生命献祭神祗在异外教徒世界是很平常的事,冈比亚河流域的部落民族,最早期的生存体验使“割礼”沿袭了一种非传统伦理的“神圣”概念,这是最先的原始人对自然的畏惧表现,从图腾宴开始,到圣餐到割礼,它们之间无一不表示着一种自然力崇拜的有机链。因为那时还没有产生记载传咏的文字,仅仅有口头文化一代一代相传,各个民族的神话和传说中流传着无数先民的故事,比如汉民族史诗《黑暗传》这样的说唱文本。这里,原始部落文明表现出对“神圣的不可触摸的”自然力的敬畏以一种原始巫仪存在,这一时期不知道具体有多久,然后进入到图腾崇拜时期,这个图腾来源于部落里的某种神秘动物。

图腾崇拜的下一步便是受崇拜物的人形化,在某一历史时期,女神出现过渡到父系时代的男神崇拜。最初的割礼是个体本能的放弃和修炼后的肉身灵性的进步,为什么要这么说呢?因为统一传承的宗教仪式和戒律可以帮助个体抑制或控制感官知觉的以及抽象思想的混乱状态,是灵性对理性的胜利,更确切地说,割礼后来变成的部落文化礼仪充当了一种戒律的类似作用,是一种伴随着心理学必然结果的本能性放弃。(1)

因此,对于自身的肉体的罚舍可以追溯到古带祭祀礼仪中割去肉身的某一部位献给自然神,这里,个体突出了由原始人开始向人格人转变的这种伦理叙事的表象。

女神崇拜

大约五千年前,在两河流域的古埃及以及古巴比伦的一些城帮和中国的殷朝到周朝曾经大力崇拜过女神,后来因为战争以及与自然的抗争,主要转向战神和自然神崇拜,这在一神教的诸多国家的出土文物中可以看出来。而在古代部落,宗教仪式不是个人的事,从一些流传下来的古代阿拉伯典籍中,当读到神性的“智慧”离开神,漫游世间寻找人性时,很难不想到异教的女神如伊斯他尔,爱娜特和爱西丝,她们也都曾在救赎人类的任务总,从神界外降临尘世。后来,所罗门王督促人们抗拒环绕自己民族的希腊文化的诱惑,认识到必须保持自己民族传统文化的信任,他认为构成真正智慧的是对耶和华的敬畏,而非殖民的希腊哲学。

所罗门王用希腊文字来表述仪式的内容,把“智慧”神人格化,并论证它不能与犹太人的神分开:

 “智慧”是神的能力的气息,

 是至高者荣光纯粹的散发,

 因此不洁之物不能接近她。

 她是永恒之光的反映,

 是神积极能力的无垢之镜,

 是她的善良之肖像。(2)

祖先崇拜和生殖崇拜以及古希腊文明

在上古民间,从黄河流域和长江流域出土的古陶器画上,可以看出很多变形的生殖崇拜图案。在叙利亚民间有“子宫节”,每逢节日,也举行类似的祭祀仪式。这些都是古人对女性生殖器崇拜的表现。后来游牧部落在生活中逐渐过渡到父系社会群居,这时期,他们发现如果男子不同女子性交,女子就不会生孩子。于是部落人认为男性才是创造生命的主宰。女神崇拜逐渐为男根崇拜所取代。这一时期的祭祀文化以及礼仪原始宗教,开始以生殖崇拜为主,中国上古居民就有祭祖的习俗,而“祖”字来源于“且”——男性生殖器的象形文字。 公元前3~前2世纪,古希腊人曾制作和供奉硕大的男性生殖器石雕。据考证,古代叙利亚妇女把木雕男性性器佩带在身上作为护身符。古埃及最著名的金字塔,也代表了男性生殖器崇拜,因为金字塔的形状和男性阴毛的形状极为相似,与女性的阴毛则有显著的区别。类似男性生殖器造型的建筑在世界上许多地区都不难见到,如印度的佛塔、印第安人的图腾柱以及中国的华表等,无不带有男根崇拜的象征意义。在原始墨西哥部落居民间更为平常。 几年前在希腊底庇斯发现的令公众惊奇的地窖中的圆柱形印章并没有使考古学界震惊,可以肯定的是未来在希腊大地上将会发现众多的此类物品。这个圆柱型代表着一中生殖崇拜的图腾,二十世纪早期英国考古学家吴雷在叙利亚奥隆特斯(Orontes)河口附近阿尔•敏纳(Al Mina)的挖掘,证实至少在公元前九世纪末期以前,优卑亚岛上的希腊人就已来到此地(当时可能叫Posideion),原始科林斯风格"(约公元前720-前640年)时期的陶器,就有明显地存在东方痕迹。这些东方化的陶器普遍采用东方纺织品或金银工艺品上撷取的鱼网图案和柱型图案、动物形象及神话人物。公元前八世纪时才被突破,那时希腊人走出

了他们的"黑暗时代",并再次被东部邻居的杰出成就所震惊。这一时期,迦南的腓尼基人把字母传给希腊人,而腓尼基字母又是从埃及象形文字演化来的,后来希腊字母又演化成拉丁字母,并最终成为西方各国的字母,然后用文字在羊皮上来记录宗教典籍和经书。随后希腊文明进入鼎盛时期,尤其是对东方文字的影响深远,古印度语言梵语的词汇"书"、"笔"、"墨水"等源自希腊语。水力磨房据说是希腊人米特罗多鲁斯(Metrodoros)传入印度的;在帕提亚的尼萨宫廷,酒杯上刻着酒神故事,宫中装饰有阿芙罗狄特、赫拉克力斯、赫拉的雕像,还上演希腊的戏剧。(3)

在公元三世纪前的印度,希腊文明经由西亚地区传入,形成了世界美术史上著名的犍陀罗艺术(因为它盛行于阿富汗和印度间,以白沙瓦为中心的犍陀罗艺术)。印度的佛教,原来是没有偶像的。自从希腊文明传入,佛教仪式里也有了偶像。而偶像的塑造,最为突出,最富有希腊色彩。犍陀罗艺术后随佛教传向外传播也深深地影响了中国、日本、印度和印尼的佛教艺术。公元前三世纪末至前二世纪初,塞琉古将领Euthydemus据大夏和粟特独立,他和他的儿子狄米特里(Demetrius,死于公元前167年)向四周塞种人地区、安息和大宛扩张领土。帝国扩张到中国的新疆(突厥)和弗林尼(They extended their empire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni.)。因此,在新疆出土的佛像上刻有太阳神装饰。 割礼的起源

这里应先上溯到公元前十世纪在上古的周王国就有了原始宗教的女神崇拜,伏羲与女娲共同发明琴瑟,创作乐曲,以用于礼仪、宗教、占卜、巫术等活动。《三国志》卷四十一诸葛亮说“石交之道,举雠以相益,割骨肉以相明,犹不相(许)〔谢〕也,况吾但委意於元俭,而君不能忍耶?”这里的割骨肉就是一种礼仪。古代某些原始民族或游牧部落里,以为割去“性”的肉身替代物的这一仪式随部落文化传承下来后,慢慢演绎成一种部落文化,部落人以为借这种仪式可以使个体在未来“理想生活”中变得如理想希冀的生活一样一帆风顺。原始人早期的雕刻都以女神为主;古印度民间有祭祀加兰女神的习俗,祭祀时以一裸体女人作为代表,其性器接受祭祀人的瞻仰膜拜。

割礼的起源还要比古埃及祭司更早,割去包皮在耶稣诞生前很久就存在了。在人类繁衍到父系氏族时期,人类在古大陆上分成很多小小的群体部落生活,每一族都受到一个强壮的男性统治,具体不知道父系氏族统治延续了多久,那时还没有发展出语言和文字的艺术,只

有原始歌舞和代表意思的图像来表达部落礼仪,这里在今天新疆的伏罗契地区的古岩画群就有记载古人类祭祀打猎的图像。那时期,所有的女人都是这个部落首领的妻子,包括他的女儿,以及女眷,以及从其它部落捕获的女性,他的儿子们的命运十分艰难,如果成年的儿子们与其他女性的成年交合激起了部落首领的醋意,他们就要被杀害、阉割或驱逐,因此,当部落首领年老时,这一权利的继承就落到了那些能打败旧首领的或最勇敢而年幼的儿子身上,这个儿子必须在巫歌的祭祀中举行隆重而虔诚的“割去某一特殊部位”的活动,此时就产生了原始的“割礼”仪式,并在部落里沿袭下来。礼科尔启斯人、古埃及人和埃西欧匹亚人是从远古以来实行割礼的仅有的几个民族。

公元前三千年左右,在地中海世界东部的爱琴海一带,产生过一个繁盛的克里特文明,这种文明同亚非大陆的关系非常密切,深受西亚和埃及诸文明的影响,而当时的欧洲“希腊地区”还是一个蒙昧未开化的区域。和希伯来人不同,希腊人和美索不达米亚自身没有直接的联系,但是在迈锡尼时代,希腊人和美索不达米亚人的近邻赫梯人、迦南人有着密切的政治、经济之联系。通过南安那托利亚的城市、迦南、塞浦路斯和克里特传送着物质与精神的财富──毫无疑问,这些东西将在希腊土壤中扎根。克里特文明留下了很多雄伟的建筑万神庙,这时期的原始宗教里就存在了一些祭祀礼仪,比如一手提泥刀,一手提羽蛇。

事实已经证明:东方的各种文明--苏美尔文明、埃及文明、赫梯文明、巴比伦文明、希伯来文明以及印度文明等等--对古希腊文明都有较大的贡献,尤其是赫梯文明扮演了古代东方和古代欧洲的桥梁作用。早在公元前三千多年以前,在今日所说的近东一带,包括美所不达米亚、小亚细亚、叙利亚、巴勒斯坦、埃及等地区,就已建立了高度发达且严密的政治和文字系统以及宗教伦理的国家。

公元前2000多年。腓尼基人和巴勒斯坦的叙利亚人自己都承认,他们从埃及人那里学到了这个风俗。而在铁尔莫东河与帕炽特尼欧斯河沿岸地带居住的叙利亚人以及与他们相邻的玛克罗涅斯人则说,这种风俗是他们最近从科尔启斯人那里学来的。排他性的一神教阿顿神教早在公元前1300多年就已经在埃及建立。(4)

在古埃及,这种手术是司空见惯的,古犹太人立誓时一手向天,一手握性器以示庄重;他们素有割礼的习惯,往往将割礼同祭上帝的仪式一起举行,通常是在割礼之后将割下的包皮再用于祭上帝。

那时期耶稣自己和他的十二门徒也曾同行割礼。在圣经里,最早提到割礼的是在《创世纪》的十七章十一节:“你们都应割去包皮的肉,作为我与你们之间的盟约的标记。”在那时,动手术的工具是磨利的石块,就如同在《出埃及记》第四章二十五节所载:“漆后辣(Zippolah)拿了一块锐利的石片,将他儿子的包皮割下,掷到他的脚下说:“你真是我的血郎(bloody husband)。” 这种锐利的石片至今仍被大多数原始民族使用,比较进化的部族就用碎玻璃片。在犹太人中,割除包皮是由专业祭师手持行割礼时的特别钢刀来施行,这种祭师叫墨赫尔(Mohel ),他们唯一的任务是割除包皮。他替出生才八天、蠕动不安的婴孩动手术,没有几个现代外科医生愿意这堋做。

一神教里的割礼

到了公元六世纪,古阿拉伯民族创立之初,他们有一个共同的祖先——在《圣经》中亚伯拉罕有个和妾夏架(Hagar)生的日子以实玛利(Ishmael)遭到了撒拉(Sarah)生的儿子以撒(Isaac)的嫉妒和驱逐,后来亚伯拉罕和以实利玛合力建造了圣寺克尔伯,也就是阿拉伯民族的第一座一神神庙,以实利玛成为阿拉伯人的祖先,在公元624年的1月,穆罕默德下令穆斯林向麦加而非耶路撒冷朝拜,伊斯兰教宣告诞生,其实,穆罕默德创立的这种新的宗教其实是回归到亚伯拉罕创立的原始宗教,此时期割礼是存在于社群和部落中的。 到了中世纪后,随着东西方文化的交融逐渐出现了一些替代礼仪文化.如公元前332年马其顿的亚里山大击败大流士三世(DariusIII),希腊人开始殖民亚洲和非洲,非洲文化因此受到了冲击。希腊人在加沙(Gaza),安曼(Amman)和黎波里(Tripolise)以及推罗(Tyre)和西顿(Sidon),甚至(Shechem)等地开始建立城邦,这些城市为代表的希腊文化浸蓐着巴勒斯坦的犹太人和离散流亡的犹太人,他们学习希腊文,甚至把自己的名字改为希腊文,礼仪文明也多元化,犹太文明中的割礼受到过希腊文明的影响,它试图探究最好的生活方式而非哲学的反思(5)。

 割礼在东方和西方的变化

从文化人类学的角度来看,人类最初由母系到父系,父系统治的群体被图腾制兄弟部落所替代后,又回到母系时代。当部落由女权来管理时,产生的社会秩序,道德法制以及宗教戒律要求女性尊崇某一沿袭的规定仪式作为纲领。这时候,就出现了女神崇拜和巫傩文化的

分支。在我国一些少数民族和偏远山区仍然有一些自然神崇拜,这里是一种民间崇拜,是社群文化繁衍的结果。

 割礼的割去的身体之物代表着舍弃“不洁”后的敬畏,几乎所有的宗教礼仪前都必须有“净身”这一要求。作为基本个体的平常女性如果要举行某一沿袭的部族仪式,肯定得有“净身”这一过程。当然,也代表感激,个体肉身的舍也代表感激,如现在某些印第安部落在采摘了大地上野外的植物或获取动物后,一定要拿出烟叶等礼物告慰“地母”,这里的“地母”就是女神。

在古代,米利都的赫开泰乌斯认为:希腊人长期以来就是埃及文明的子孙。希罗多德指出希腊的一个主要城邦底比斯的创建人卡德摩斯就是属于闪族的腓尼基的一个王子,并且指出希腊的许多神名来自埃及。文艺复兴时期的法国古典学者约瑟夫•斯卡利杰

(J.J.Scaliger,1540-1609)也指出希腊人受益于非希腊人的成就。伟大的科学史专家乔治•萨顿说:"希腊科学的基础完全是东方的,不论希腊的天才多么深刻,没有这些基础,它并不一定能够创立任何可与其实际成就相比的东西。??我们没有权利无视希腊天才的埃及父亲和美索不达米亚母亲";怀特海也说:"我们从闪族人那里继承了道德和宗教,从埃及人那里继承了实践"(1937)

中世纪后期,城市的兴起使人们以为婚姻中较阳刚的体质——体力,被抬高超过女性阴柔的特质,此后女性逐渐被边沿化,在世界的各级文明中变成次等公民,希腊文化中女性属于从属地位是女奴一样的卑微的,受到古希腊文明对犹太人割礼的影响,所以,原先的女神崇拜以及女性割礼到了公元前332年马其顿的亚里山殖民阿拉伯后,女性的割礼就渐渐衰落下去,处于从属地位。

希腊殖民非洲和亚洲后,以色列等中东民族社会也在态度上变得更男性化。(6)虽然以色列人一直不断地祭拜如犹底特(Judith)与以斯帖(Esther)等女英雄,但自耶和华成功地消灭了迦南地与中东一带的其它男神和女神而成为唯一的神以后,他的宗教便几乎为男性所把持了。因此,男孩子的“割礼”更突显出男性文明的地位。女神崇拜被取代,这象征着新文明社会所带来的文化特质转变。

今天如澳洲土著、巴西未开化的塔古那印第安人、阿比西尼亚的基督教徒等不同的种族都施行割礼,当然,现代的犹太人和回教徒更不例外。非洲部落文化中的“割礼”,仅仅是

作为母系文化背景下,女性在继承原始母性未为遗忘的意志,是为了使女孩子返回女人的“本性”—— 從灵性自疗到性別自处,这里也是一种让本能回归灵性能得到更多恩赐的戒律仪式 。比如,“sacer”这个词不仅意味着“神圣的”,“爱神祝福的”,但也可以理解为“遭天罚的”,“该受诅咒的”,因此,“神圣”这个词无论哪一民族语言来说,其词根追译都有迄今为止无法解释的双重意义。

这里,非洲女性在走向成熟之初,人的意志被迫做出了向自然的妥协,甚至象征着“去肉身化”的割礼本身就是一种向自然之神的祭拜,迫出个体做出痛苦的本能的屈服的不仅是代表个体本身向智慧或幸福未来的决心,也是服从于整个部落社会秩序和道德体系的行为。尤其对于没有知识障的个体,更好地把握了一种与自然的沟通和交流方式。“割礼”是沿袭着旧文化礼仪前进的,与现代文明的碰撞中,仍然希望以“割礼”来维持原来的和谐的道德体系。无论个体以肉身的什么为代价,这里,“割礼”是一次神圣的意识洗礼。

从伦理学角度来看,在一个借助其专门的仪式系统来校正善恶概念的群居社会中,个体借助一种传统仪式对群体权利以及个体互相之间的一种权利进行协调,是对伦理戒律的承接。其根源还在于个体意志的放逐才突显美的理想状态中崇高和神圣的根基,而成为一种民族生存的强大力量。

从精神分析来看,个体对不可知的风俗礼仪以一种强迫顺从来表现,印象本身被有意识地记忆了下来,“割礼”成为走向成熟之人性路的一道门槛,个体被迫继承着同一种对自然的把握和认知,这里有了妄想的成分,因此,建立起历史性与未来真理之间的幻想。(7)当现代文明逐渐影响到部落的生存观时,对每一代新的部落居民人的人性道德体系的构建过程中,“割礼”仍然沿袭着早期部落的文化地位,因此,在原始部落族群里,“割礼”代表的礼教和戒律达到了其他民族无法接近的伦理高度,主要是来巩固和加强社群的道德约束力。



注释:

(1)弗洛伊德 著《摩西与一神教》,李展开译 三联书店1992年版

(2)《所罗门的智慧》第七章25——26

(3)陈恒《古代欧亚的交界地——诸文明的汇聚区和传播区》

(4)希罗多德《历史*第二卷》

(5)(6(英)阿姆斯特郎 《神的历史》海南出版社

(7)弗洛伊德 著《摩西与一神教》,李展开译 三联书店1992年版

二 : GMAT小安阅读法造福无数人的mumuwa的南丁格尔篇解读示例

1、造福无数人的mumuwa的南丁格尔篇解读示例:(携隐主题贴42页)

1).(主题句,由此句和三段首句可知本文是结论解释型文章,即主要特点是总分式)A book by (观点之一)seeks to debunk (负评价的实义动词)the idealizations and present a reality(正评价词)at odds with Nightingale’s heroic reputation. According to Summers, Nightingale’s importance during the Crimean War(和观点二比较的差别点) has been exaggerated(负评价的实义动词): not until near the war’s end did she become supervisor of the female (递进副词,表示行文方向一致,因此后面内容可以略读,仅提炼关键词即可,或不读)Summers writes that the contribution of the nurses to the relief of the wounded was at best marginal. The prevailing problems of military medicine were caused by army organizaitonal pratices, and the addition of a few nurses to the medical staff could be no more than symbolic. Nightingale’s place in the national pantheon, Summers asserts, is lrgely due to the propagandistic efforts of contemporary newspaper reporters.(以上略读)

2)By contrast(重要的强转折词,注意对比方/观点的差异点), the (对比观点二)of a new volume of Nightingale’s letters view Nightingale as a person who significantly influenced(正评价词) not only her own age but also subsequenct generations. (观点二比较的差别点,和观点一中during the Crimean War对比,这一句是后面举例的总结句,重要,知道总结句可以不用看后面的例子。[www.61k.com]). For example,(举例通常可以略读,只提取例子中的关键词,如举例的关键看前后的总结句,这里是for example 前面的一句话,因为例子都是用来说明总结句的,只要明白总结句的意思就行了。 ) when she leanred that in British barracks were so horrible that the death rate of enlisted men far exeeded that of neighboring civilian populations, she succeeded in persuading the government to establish a Royal Commission on the Health of the Army. She used sums raised through public contributions to found a nurses’ traning hospital in London. Even in administrative matters, the editors assert, her practical intelligence was formidable: as recently as 1947 the British Army’s medical services were still using the cost-accounting system she had devised in the 1860’s.(以上略读)

3)I believe that the evidence of her letters supports(正评价词) continued respect for Nightingale’s brilliance and creativity(正评价词). (总结句后举例说明,提取关键字,略读)When counseling a village schoolmaster to encourage children to use their faculties of observation, she sounds like a modern educator. Her insistence on classifying the problems of the needy in order to devise appropriate treatments is similar to the approach of modern social workers.(此处为总结句), (让步略读,重点是让步后的转折句)Nightingale may not have achieved all of her goals during the Crimean War, (正评价词)(正评价词)of social pioneers.(重点读,表明作者对以上两个不同观点的评述)

小安阅读法 GMAT小安阅读法造福无数人的mumuwa的南丁格尔篇解读示例

题目:

注意我怎么定位的,题干、选项和原文原句的对应线索我用相同颜色标注,题干中的定位依据的关键词我用下划线标注:

73. The passage is with evaluating

(A) the importance of Florence Nightingale’s innovations in the field of nursing

(B) contrasting approaches to the writing of historical biography

(D) the quality of health care in nineteenth-century England

(E) the effect of the Crimean War on developments in the field of health care

主题题,直接定位首段首句主题句:

74. According to the passage, the editors(定位在观点二出现段) of Nightingale’s letters credit(正评价的实义动词,将定位进一步限制在观点二中的正评价处,即找贡献) her with contributing to which of the following?

(A) Improving of the survival rate for soldiers in British Army hospitals an War(时间状语为观点一的内容,观点二的比较点在after the war,大胆排除)

(B) The development of a nurses’(原文未出现,排除)that was far in advance of its day

(C) The increase in the (原文未出现,排除)practicing in British Army hospitals

(D) Establishment of the (极端词文章没有,选项出现,排除!)facility for traiing nurses at a major British university

(E) The creation of an organization for monitoring the peacetime living conditions of British soldiers

原文对应:she succeeded in persuading the government to establish a Royal Commission on the Health of the Army.

小安阅读法 GMAT小安阅读法造福无数人的mumuwa的南丁格尔篇解读示例

直接事实题,定位在2)段,for example 后具体内容中,此题重点在于对于文中未出现的信息的果断排除,千万不要超出文章半步的猜测。[www.61k.com)

75. The passage suggests which of the following about Nightingale’s relationship with the British of her day?

(A) She was highly respected, her projects receiving popular and governmental support.

(B) She encountered resistance both from the army establishment and the general public.

(C) She was supported by the working classes and opposed by the wealthier classes.

扩展:mumugmat / gmat小安阅读法 / www.mumugmat.com

(D) She was supported by the military establishment but had to fight the governmental bureaucracy.

(E) After intially being received with enthusiams, she was quickly forgotten.

She used sums raised through public contributions to found a nurses’ traning hospital in London. 原文中唯一有public这个词的句子只有一处,确定无疑。

76. The passage suggests which of the following about in Britain r the Crimean War(重要的定位依据,说明是观点二的内容,所以我以前说,对题干的提炼一定要注意,即使只是一个时间状语)?

(A) While not ideal, they were superior to those in other parts of the world.

(B) Compared with conditions before the war, they had deteriorated.

(C) They were more advanced in rural areas than in the urban centers.

(D) They were worse in military camps than in the neighboring civilian populations.

(E) They were unifromaly crude and unsatisfactory throughout England.

(They highlight her ongoing efforts to reform sanitary conditions For example, )when she leanred that peacetime living conditions in British barracks were so horrible that the death rate of enlisted men far exeeded that of neighboring civilian populations,....

小安阅读法 GMAT小安阅读法造福无数人的mumuwa的南丁格尔篇解读示例

77. Which of the following statements regarding the differing interpretations of Nightingale’s importance would the author most likely agree(定位于作者的观点,作者观点的总结句,而不是文中提到的两个观点)?

(A) Summers misunderstood both the importance of Nightingale’s achievements during the Crimean War and her subsequent influence on British policy.

(B) The editors of Nightingale’s letters made some valid points about her practical achievements, but they still exaggerated her influence on subsequent genrations.

(C) Although , she ignored evidence of Nightingales’ subsequent achievement that suggests that her reputation as an eminent social reformer is welldeserved.

定位于文末最后一句,关于作者对两个观点的总结句:

In sum, although Nightingale n War(观点一内容), her breadth of vision and ability to realize ambitious projects have earned her an eminent place among the ranks of social pioneers.

(D) The editors of Nightingale’s letters mistakenly propagated the outdated idealization of Nightingale that only impedes attempts to arrive at a balance assessment of her true role.

(E) The evidence of Nightingale’s letters supports Summers’ conclusions both about Nightingale’s activities and about her influence.

78. Which of the following is an assumption underlying the author’s assessment of Nightingale’s ?

(A) Educational philosophy in Nightingale’s day did not normally emphasize developing children’s ability to observe.

When counseling a village schoolmaster to encourage children to use their faculties of observation, she sounds like a modern educator.

(B) Nightingale was to notice the poor living conditions in British military barracks in peacetime.

(C) educator before Nightingale had thought to enlist the help of village shcoolmasters in introducing new teaching techniques.

(D) there was concept of organized help for the needy in nineteenth-century Britain.

小安阅读法 GMAT小安阅读法造福无数人的mumuwa的南丁格尔篇解读示例

(E) The British Army’s medical services had system 本题注意细节的排除,坚决按照原文信息!原文未出现的信息坚决不能选!尤其注意极端词汇!(以上选项中划线部分都是排除的依据)

the author is primarily concerned with

(A) summarizing the arguments about Nightingale presented in the first two paragraphs

(B) refuting the view of Nightingale’s career presented in the preceding pargraph

(C) analyzing the weaknesses of the evidence presented elsewhere in the passage

(D) citing evidence to support a view of Nightingale’s career

(E) correcting a factual error occurring in one of the works under review

段落作用题,需要建立在框架把握的基础上,第三段和前两段的关系如何?从首句或末句判断。[www.61k.com) I believe that the evidence of her letters supports continued respect for Nightingale’s brilliance and creativity.

按照XDF老师传授的方法,第一遍读完,我会做这样的总结(XDF老师叫做"逻辑简图",携隐看看,其实简单的框架图就好,不用花太多时间像你以前那样总结.)

逻辑简图

1) 对N贡献评价有两个不同观点+第一个观点: TS(主题句), AS (Anne Summers), during the Crimean War, exaggerated ( — )

2)第二个观点:By contrast, Editors, significantly influenced(+), after the war, for examples

3)作者的观点:I believe....supports(+)... brilliance and creativity(+). In sum,eminent(+)

这种逻辑简图简单实用,其实就是总结每段的段意、段内标志文章承转起合的重要的连接词、态度词,帮助你了解文章框架,把握重要的由连接词引出的出题点。

另:从本文你可以看出,一定要培养对关键的连词和作者态度词的重视和敏感!

我平常的阅读大致如此,是按照XDF老师的方法,每一遍的总结侧重不同,但最后读文章答题时就是这样的读法和思路,等于现场做一个示范,帮助大家了解我所说的读文章框架+定位+题干和原文的对应是怎么一回事.其他文章一个道理,希望能够拿上面的分析好好过一过,如果对你们的阅读有所帮助,也不枉我一片苦心啊~

扩展:mumugmat / gmat小安阅读法 / www.mumugmat.com

扩展:mumugmat / gmat小安阅读法 / www.mumugmat.com

三 : 阅读《奇妙的克隆》一文选段《克隆技术造福人类》附答案

阅读《奇妙的克隆》一文选段《克隆技术造福人类》附答案

阅读《奇妙的克隆》一文选段,按要求完成文后各题。(12分)

克隆技术造福人类

①隆技术会给人类带来极大的好处。例如,英国PPL公司已培育出羊奶中含有治疗肺气肿的a—Ⅰ抗胰蛋白酶的母羊。这种羊奶的售价是6000美元一升。一只母羊就好比一座制药厂。用什么办法能最有效、最方便地使这种羊扩大繁殖呢?最好的办法就是“克隆”。同样,荷兰PHP公司培育出能分泌人乳铁蛋白的牛,以色列LAS公司育成了能生产血清白蛋白的羊。这些高附加值的牲畜如何有效地繁殖?答案当然还是“克隆”。【阅读《奇妙的克隆》一文选段《克隆技术造福人类》附答案】阅读《奇妙的克隆》一文选段《克隆技术造福人类》附答案。

②母马配公驴可以得到杂种优势特别强的动物——骡,然而骡不能繁殖后代,那么,优良的骡如何扩大繁殖?最好的办法也是“克隆”。我国的大熊猫是国宝,但自然交配成功率低,因此已濒临绝种。如何挽救这类珍稀动物?“克隆”为人类提供了切实可行的途径。

③除此之外,克隆动物对于研究癌生物学、研究免疫学、研究人的寿命等都有不可低估的作用。

④不可否认,“克隆绵羊”的问世也引起了许多人对“克隆人”的兴趣。例如,有人在考虑,是否可将自己的细胞克隆成一个胚胎,在其成形前就冰冻起来。在将来的某二天,自身的某个器官出了问题时,就可从胚胎中取出这个器官进行培养,然后替换自己病变的器官。这也就是用克隆法为人类自身提供“配件”。

⑤有关“克隆人”的讨论提醒人们,科技进步是一首悲喜交集的进行曲。【阅读《奇妙的克隆》一文选段《克隆技术造福人类》附答案】文章阅读《奇妙的克隆》一文选段《克隆技术造福人类》附答案出自,转载请保留此链接!。科技越发展,对社会的渗透越广泛深入,就越有可能引起许多有关的伦理、道德和法律等问题。我想用诺贝尔奖获得者、著名分子生物学家J.D.沃森的话来结束本文:“可以期待,许多生物学家,特别是那些从事无性繁殖研究的科学家,将会严肃地考虑它的含意,并展开科学讨论,用以教育世界人民。”

10.请你简要概括选文主要是从哪几个方面来写克隆技术造福人类?(3分)

答:

11.文段①中运用了哪些说#from 本文来自学优网http://www.gkstk.com end#明方法?请你任意列举出其中一种,并说明其作用。(3分)

答:

学优网http://www.gkstk.com/

12.认真阅读文段⑤并完成下列问题。

(1)文段⑤采用的主要表达方式是: (1分);在文段中能支撑“科技进步是一首

悲喜交集的进行曲”这一观点的句子是: (2分);

(2)为什么说“科技进步是一首悲喜交集的进行曲”?请结合选文内容说说你对这句话的理解。(3分)

答:

参考答案:学优网整理

10.选文主要从三个方面来写克隆技术造福人类:①克隆可以有效地繁殖具有“高附加值的牲畜”;②克隆可以用来挽救珍稀动物;③克隆对于人类疾病的防治、寿命的延长具有重要意义。

11.文段①中的说明方法有:列数字(数字说明)、举例子(举例说明)、打比方(比喻说明)。(考生只要能列举出其中一种说明方法给1分,并能准确说出其作用即可给2分。)

示例①:举例子的说明方法,以荷兰PHP公司培育出能分泌人乳铁蛋白的牛和以色列LAS公司育成了能生产血清白蛋白的羊为例,具体说明可以通过克隆技术有效地繁殖具有高附加值的牲畜。

示例②:以6 OOO美元一升的羊奶售价的数字,准确地说明了克隆技术会给人类带来极大的好处。【阅读《奇妙的克隆》一文选段《克隆技术造福人类》附答案】阅读答案。

示例③:把母羊比作一座制药厂,形象生动地说明了能利用克隆技术来繁殖这种羊,并生产出药用价值高的羊奶。

12.(1)议论:“科技越发展,对社会的渗透越广泛深入,就越有可能引起许多有关的伦理、道德和法律等问题”。

(2)答案要点:①科技进步给人们带来很多先进技术,如克隆技术可以造福于人类,就是给人类带来的“喜”。

(意思对即可)②科学技术又是一把双刃剑,在其造福人类的同时也带来一些负面效应,也就是科技进步给人类带来负面影响“悲”的一面。(意思对即可)③科学技术再发展,再进步,也应服务于人类,因此不能把科学自由与伦理道德对立起来,而应使伦理、道德运用科学的利剑,使之为人类造福。(意思相近即可)

四 : GMAT小安阅读法造福无数人的mumuwa的南丁格尔篇解读示例

1、造福无数人的mumuwa的南丁格尔篇解读示例:(携隐主题贴42页)

1).(主题句,由此句和三段首句可知本文是结论解释型文章,即主要特点是总分式)A book by (观点之一)seeks to debunk (负评价的实义动词)the idealizations and present a reality(正评价词)at odds with Nightingale’s heroic reputation. According to Summers, Nightingale’s importance during the Crimean War(和观点二比较的差别点) has been exaggerated(负评价的实义动词): not until near the war’s end did she become supervisor of the female (递进副词,表示行文方向一致,因此后面内容可以略读,仅提炼关键词即可,或不读)Summers writes that the contribution of the nurses to the relief of the wounded was at best marginal. The prevailing problems of military medicine were caused by army organizaitonal pratices, and the addition of a few nurses to the medical staff could be no more than symbolic. Nightingale’s place in the national pantheon, Summers asserts, is lrgely due to the propagandistic efforts of contemporary newspaper reporters.(以上略读)

2)By contrast(重要的强转折词,注意对比方/观点的差异点), the (对比观点二)of a new volume of Nightingale’s letters view Nightingale as a person who significantly influenced(正评价词) not only her own age but also subsequenct generations. (观点二比较的差别点,和观点一中during the Crimean War对比,这一句是后面举例的总结句,重要,知道总结句可以不用看后面的例子。). For example,(举例通常可以略读,只提取例子中的关键词,如举例的关键看前后的总结句,这里是for example 前面的一句话,因为例子都是用来说明总结句的,只要明白总结句的意思就行了。 ) when she leanred that in British barracks were so horrible that the death rate of enlisted men far exeeded that of neighboring civilian populations, she succeeded in persuading the government to establish a Royal Commission on the Health of the Army. She used sums raised through public contributions to found a nurses’ traning hospital in London. Even in administrative matters, the editors assert, her practical intelligence was formidable: a——好文章——s recently as 1947 the British Army’s medical services were still using the cost-accounting system she had devised in the 1860’s.(以上略读)

3)I believe that the evidence of her letters supports(正评价词) continued respect for Nightingale’s brilliance and creativity(正评价词). (总结句后举例说明,提取关键字,略读)When counseling a village schoolmaster to encourage children to use their faculties of observation, she sounds like a modern educator. Her insistence on classifying the problems of the needy in order to devise appropriate treatments is similar to the approach of modern social workers.(此处为总结句), (让步略读,重点是让步后的转折句)Nightingale may not have achieved all of her goals during the Crimean War, (正评价词)(正评价词)of social pioneers.(重点读,表明作者对以上两个不同观点的评述)

题目:

注意我怎么定位的,题干、选项和原文原句的对应线索我用相同颜色标注,题干中的定位依据的关键词我用下划线标注:

73. The passage is with evaluating

(A) the importance of Florence Nightingale’s innovations in the field of nursing

(B) contrasting approaches to the writing of historical biography

(D) the quality of health care in nineteenth-century England

(E) the effect of the Crimean War on developments in the field of health care

主题题,直接定位首段首句主题句:

74. According to the passage, the editors(定位在观点二出现段) of Nightingale’s letters credit(正评价的实义动词,将定位进一步限制在观点二中的正评价处,即找贡献) her with contributing to which of the following?

(A) Improving of the survival rate for soldiers in British Army hospitals an War(时间状语为观点一的内容,观点二的比较点在after the war,大胆排除)

(B) The development of a nurses’(原文未出现,排除)that was far in advance of its day

(C) The increase in the (原文未出现,排除)practicing in British Army hospitals

(D) Establishment of the (极端词文章没有,选项出现,排除!)facility for traiing nurses at a major British university

(E) The creation of an organization for monitoring the peacetime living conditions of British soldiers

原文对应:she succeeded in persuading the government to establish a Royal Commission on the Health of the Army.

直接事实题,定位在2)段,for example 后具体内容中,此题重点在于对于文中未出现的信息的果断排除,千万不要超出文章半步的猜测。

75. The passage suggests which of the following about Nightingale’s relationship with the British of her day?

(A) She was highly respected, her projects receiving popular and governmental support.

(B) She encountered resistance both from the army establishment and the general public.

(C) She was supported by the working classes and opposed by the wealthier classes.

(D) She was supported by the military establishment but had to fight the governmental bureaucracy.

(E) After intially being received with enthusiams, she was quickly forgotten.

She used sums raised through public contributions to found a nurses’ traning hospital in London. 原文中唯一有public这个词的句子只有一处,确定无疑。

76. The passage suggests which of the following about in Britain r the Crimean War(重要的定位依据,说明是观点二的内容,所以我以前说,对题干的提炼一定要注意,即使只是一个时间状语)?

(A) While not ideal, they were superior to those in other parts of the world.

(B) Compared with conditions before the war, they had deteriorated.

(C) They were more advanced in rural areas than in the urban centers.

(D) They were worse in military camps than in the neighboring civilian populations.

(E) They were unifromaly crude and unsatisfactory throughout England.

(They highlight her ongoing efforts to reform sanitary conditions For example, )when she leanred that peacetime living conditions in British barracks were so horrible that the death rate of enlist ed men far exeeded that of neighboring civilian populations,....

77. Which of the following statements regarding the differing interpretations of Nightingale’s importance would the author most likely agree(定位于作者的观点,作者观点的总结句,而不是文中提到的两个观点)?

(A) Summers misunderstood both the importance of Nightingale’s achievements during the Crimean War and her subsequent influence on British policy.

(B) The editors of Nightingale’s letters made some valid points about her practical achievements, but they still exaggerated her influence on subsequent genrations.

(C) Although , she ignored evidence of Nightingales’ subsequent achievement that suggests that her reputation as an eminent social reformer is welldeserved.

定位于文末最后一句,关于作者对两个观点的总结句:

In sum, although Nightingale n War(观点一内容), her breadth of visio n and ability to realize ambitious projects have earned her an eminent place among the ranks of social pioneers.

(D) The editors of Nightingale’s letters mistakenly propagated the outdated idealization of Nightingale that only impedes attempts to arrive at a balance assessment of her true role.

(E) The evidence of Nightingale’s letters supports Summers’ conclusions both about Nightingale’s activities and about her influence.

78. Which of the following is an assumption underlying the author’s assessment of Nightingale’s ?

(A) Educational philosophy in Nightingale’s day did not normally emphasize developing children’s ability to observe.

When counseling a village schoolmaster to encourage children to use their faculties of observation, she sounds like a modern educator.

(B) Nightingale was to notice the poor living conditions in British military barracks in peacetime.

(C) educator before Nightingale had thought to enlist the help of village shcoolmasters in introducing new teaching techniques.

(D) there was concept of organized help for the needy in nineteenth-century Britain.

(E) The British Army’s medical services had system 本题注意细节的排除,坚决按照原文信息!原文未出现的信息坚决不能选!尤其注意极端词汇!(以上选项中划线部分都是排除的依据)

the author is primarily concerned with

(A) summarizing the arguments about Nightingale presented in the first two paragraphs

(B) refuting the view of Nightingale’s career presented in the preceding pargraph

(C) analyzing the weaknesses of the evidence presented elsewhere in the passage

(D) citing evidence to support a view of Nightingale’s career

(E) correcting a factual error occurring in one of the works under review

段落作用题,需要建立在框架把握的基础上,第三段【www.61k.com和前两段的关系如何?从首句或末句判断。 I believe that the evidence of her letters supports continued respect for Nightingale’s brilliance and creativity.

按照XDF老师传授的方法,第一遍读完,我会做这样的总结(XDF老师叫做"逻辑简图",携隐看看,其实简单的框架图就好,不用花太多时间像你以前那样总结.)

逻辑简图

1) 对N贡献评价有两个不同观点+第一个观点: TS(主题句), AS (Anne Summers), during the Crimean War, exaggerated ( — )

2)第二个观点:By contrast, Editors, significantly influenced(+), after the war, for examples

3)作者的观点:I believe....supports(+)... brilliance and creativity(+). In sum,eminent(+)

这种逻辑简图简单实用,其实就是总结每段的段意、段内标志文章承转起合的重要的连接词、态度词,帮助你了解文章框架,把握重要的由连接词引出的出题点。

另:从本文你可以看出,一定要培养对关键的连词和作者态度词的重视和敏感!

我平常的阅读大致如此,是按照XDF老师的方法,每一遍的总结侧重不同,但最后读文章答题时就是这样的读法和思路,等于现场做一个示范,帮助大家了解我所说的读文章框架+定位+题干和原文的对应是怎么一回事.其他文章一个道理,希望能够拿上面的分析好好过一过,如果对你们的阅读有所帮助,也不枉我一片苦心啊~

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